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Subtitles
00:00:00
have you ever wondered about the00:00:03
foundations of our reality00:00:07
what if I told you that the world around00:00:10
us is governed by mysterious particles00:00:13
and invisible dimensions00:00:16
would you believe me00:00:18
nothing could be further from the truth00:00:22
yet the nature of the forces and00:00:24
elements that shape our universe is00:00:27
unknown to us00:00:29
admittedly00:00:31
scientific advances over the last few00:00:33
centuries have enabled us to understand00:00:36
in detail00:00:38
the events that unfold on a macroscopic00:00:42
scale00:00:43
but when we venture onto smaller scales00:00:47
it's as if we're entering a parallel00:00:50
reality whose workings Escape us00:00:54
in this world of the infinitely small00:00:56
the laws of physics and relativity we00:01:00
know no longer apply00:01:03
instead we find strange sometimes00:01:07
invisible particles interacting in such00:01:10
mysterious ways that we find it hard to00:01:14
believe they actually work00:01:17
quantum physics string theory00:01:20
supersymmetry00:01:22
the uncertainty principle00:01:25
so many Expressions that attempt to00:01:28
describe the mechanisms of this00:01:30
invisible reality to make it easier to00:01:33
understand00:01:36
unfortunately00:01:38
some parameters still elude us00:01:41
and it's possible that Mankind's00:01:44
intellectual capacities will never allow00:01:48
us to tame the events at the heart of00:01:50
atoms00:01:52
that said as long as the mystery remains00:01:56
research will continue00:02:00
each Discovery inevitably raises its own00:02:03
set of questions00:02:05
by probing the microscopic World00:02:09
scientists have been able to venture00:02:11
deep into Nature's smallest universe00:02:15
while a few decades ago we thought that00:02:18
atoms were the Inseparable building00:02:20
blocks of matter today we know that00:02:24
these elements are home to an incredible00:02:27
bestiary of particles00:02:30
quarks gluons Higgs bosons neutrinos00:02:35
photons00:02:37
it's enough to make you dizzy00:02:40
to say that these elements are minuscule00:02:44
is an understatement00:02:46
to understand this let's compare scales00:02:51
observations of the cosmos tell us that00:02:55
the diameter of the observable universe00:02:57
is around 93 billion light years00:03:02
until recently the number of galaxies in00:03:06
the universe was estimated at between00:03:08
100 and 200 billion00:03:11
according to the latest estimates there00:03:14
are in fact 2 000 billion00:03:18
in fact our Milky Way is just a tiny00:03:21
drop in the cosmic ocean00:03:24
yet from our perspective its dimensions00:03:27
are inordinate00:03:29
it's estimated to be over one hundred00:03:32
thousand light years across00:03:35
that's enough to house between 200 and00:03:38
400 billion stars00:03:41
and probably more than 100 billion00:03:44
planets00:03:46
among these stars is our sun00:03:49
nearly 700 000 kilometers or 430 00000:03:54
miles in radius00:03:56
that's around 10 to the ninth power00:03:59
times the diameter of the Earth00:04:03
our beautiful blue planet gigantic to00:04:07
our eyes is in reality invisible in this00:04:11
Cosmos00:04:13
for if the solar system were a city 2000:04:17
kilometers across00:04:19
the Earth would be little more than a00:04:21
grape00:04:22
and yet more than 8 billion human beings00:04:26
now live on it00:04:28
but then again appearances are deceptive00:04:31
for a man is far from occupying all the00:04:35
space available on Earth00:04:37
if we were to group together all the00:04:40
human beings currently living here they00:04:43
would fit on an area equivalent to the00:04:46
city of Los Angeles00:04:48
so compared to a modestly sized00:04:52
terrestrial planet man is a grain of00:04:55
sand00:04:57
if this scale comparison gives you a00:05:00
slight headache just wait for the next00:05:03
part00:05:04
because it's possible to go much further00:05:08
each human being however microscopic00:05:12
compared to the cosmos is made up of00:05:15
around thirty thousand billion cells00:05:19
and these tiny cells observable only00:05:23
under the microscope are themselves made00:05:27
up of one hundred thousand billion atoms00:05:31
this figure varies greatly from cell to00:05:34
cell00:05:35
but it's still completely excessive00:05:39
wait we can go even further00:05:42
if we look at the heart of atoms we'll00:05:45
be amazed to discover that their 99.900:05:49
percent empty00:05:52
in other words the elementary particles00:05:54
that give life to atoms occupy just 1000:05:58
to the minus 14 power percent of their00:06:01
structure00:06:03
we can say it matter is theoretically00:06:07
made up of nothingness00:06:09
it sounds crazy but hidden in this00:06:13
nothingness are tiny elements of the00:06:15
quantum world that give life to the00:06:18
reality we know00:06:20
and although we are made of atoms their00:06:23
profound nature seems even more distant00:06:26
than the confines of the observable00:06:28
universe00:06:30
so the infinitely small conceals many00:06:34
Mysteries00:06:35
[Music]00:06:36
dear traveler good morning00:06:39
today we're off to explore the heart of00:06:41
matter in the infinitely small00:06:45
together we'll try to unravel its00:06:48
Secrets by literally looking deep inside00:06:51
ourselves00:06:53
but before we set off on a new adventure00:06:55
remember to like the video and subscribe00:06:59
to the channel so you don't miss a thing00:07:02
thank you and have a great trip00:07:09
before embarking on our journey into the00:07:12
world of the infinitely small we must00:07:15
first take a look at the world around us00:07:18
as you know it is governed by physical00:07:21
laws that seem immutable00:07:24
these include Albert Einstein's general00:07:27
relativity Newtonian mechanics and00:07:31
Maxwell's classical electromagnetism00:07:35
but to get down to the quantum scale00:07:37
you'll have to forget a lot of these00:07:40
General truths00:07:42
in this world we observe intriguing00:07:45
phenomena that are not taken into00:07:48
account by the classical laws of our00:07:51
reality00:07:52
would you like an example00:07:54
well in that case do you know anyone who00:07:58
is both dead and alive00:08:01
apart from in George Romero zombie films00:08:04
this is quite impossible00:08:07
these two states are quite distinct00:08:10
nobody can be both dead and alive00:08:14
at least in the literal sense of the00:08:16
word00:08:17
but in quantum physics things are quite00:08:20
different00:08:21
a particle can exist simultaneously in00:08:26
several different states00:08:28
this phenomenon is known as Quantum00:08:32
superposition00:08:33
[Music]00:08:36
it's perfectly illustrated by the famous00:08:39
Schrodinger cat thought experiment00:08:42
formulated by the physicist of the same00:08:44
name in 1935.00:08:47
in this experiment we imagine00:08:51
a hermetically sealed box containing a00:08:53
cat00:08:54
a vial of poison00:08:57
a device for detecting radioactive00:08:59
particles and a piece of radioactive00:09:03
material00:09:04
when the radioactive material Decay is00:09:07
it triggers the detection device00:09:10
shattering the poison vial and killing00:09:13
the cat00:09:15
according to quantum physics before the00:09:19
Box is open for measurement the state of00:09:21
the system the cat the radioactive00:09:24
material and the poison is described by00:09:28
a Quantum superposition00:09:31
this means that the cat is theoretically00:09:33
in a state of superposition both dead00:09:37
and alive until the box is opened00:09:42
obviously this funny experiment doesn't00:09:45
reflect reality on a macroscopic scale00:09:49
but it does help us to understand00:09:52
the phenomenon of superposition specific00:09:55
to subatomic particles00:09:58
do you find it strange00:10:01
well we've only just scratched the00:10:04
surface of The Oddities lurking in the00:10:06
realm of the infinitely small00:10:09
within it we also find quantum00:10:12
entanglement00:10:15
[Music]00:10:18
this law tells us that when two00:10:21
particles are entangled their Quantum00:10:23
states are inseparably linked regardless00:10:27
of their spatial distance00:10:29
and if two particles are in a state of00:10:32
entanglement only a measurement will00:10:35
tell us which final State they will00:10:37
adopt00:10:39
a measurement made on one of the two00:10:42
particles will instantly affect the00:10:44
state of its twin particle even if the00:10:47
two are separated by great distances00:10:52
it's as if the two entities could00:10:54
communicate immediately00:10:57
at an instantaneous speed that exceeds00:11:00
the speed of light challenging the laws00:11:03
of modern physics00:11:05
we call this a phenomenon of00:11:08
non-locality00:11:10
all this may seem very complex to you00:11:13
and so it should00:11:16
quantum physics is totally00:11:18
counter-intuitive00:11:20
so much so that more than one physicist00:11:24
is torn his hair out trying to unravel00:11:26
its secrets00:11:28
but don't worry we'll be coming back to00:11:31
the specifics of quantum physics in00:11:33
Greater detail as we continue our00:11:36
journey00:11:37
in the meantime let's get back to the00:11:41
macroscopic world around us00:11:43
[Music]00:11:46
like Erwin Schrodinger we too are going00:11:50
to conduct a thought experiment00:11:52
and to do so we're going to imagine that00:11:56
we have the ability to grow and Shrink00:11:59
at will00:12:00
a bit like Marvel's superhero Ant-Man00:12:04
with this power we can travel close to00:12:07
Mount Everest the highest mountain00:12:10
formation in the Earth's crust00:12:13
its highest point is almost 9 000 meters00:12:17
or 29 500 feet above sea level00:12:23
so we're going to grow until we reach00:12:26
that height00:12:27
let's just say that this will be our00:12:30
starting point for our descent to00:12:33
microscopic scales00:12:35
but to shrink we need different frames00:12:38
of reference00:12:40
in this case after the highest natural00:12:42
formation it makes sense to head for the00:12:46
largest human Construction00:12:49
for that we need to go to Dubai to the00:12:53
Burj Khalifa00:12:56
this gigantic Tower is 828 meters or00:13:00
2700 feet high00:13:03
now let's go down another level and00:13:06
measure up to the largest animal on00:13:08
Earth00:13:09
namely the blue whale00:13:12
a whale that can reach 30 meters or 10000:13:15
feet in length and weigh close to 20000:13:18
tons00:13:20
and this same whale feeds on plankton a00:13:24
collection of very small organisms that00:13:26
live in aquatic environments00:13:29
their size varies considerably according00:13:32
to the type of organism00:13:34
but the smallest of them measures no00:13:37
more than a few micrometers00:13:39
that's one thousand times smaller than a00:13:42
millimeter00:13:44
thanks to our superpowers we can shrink00:13:48
to the size of microplankton to observe00:13:51
them00:13:52
we're tiny now00:13:54
but we're still a long way from the atom00:13:58
like bacteria and other single cell00:14:01
organisms where the size of a cell but00:14:05
we've yet to scale up to the size of a00:14:07
virus00:14:09
yes viruses are much smaller than00:14:12
bacteria00:14:13
although the two are often wrongly00:14:16
associated00:14:17
bacteria are micrometers in size so00:14:22
they're easy to observe under an optical00:14:24
microscope00:14:26
for viruses things are very different00:14:29
viruses measure between 20 and 30000:14:32
nanometers00:14:34
they are therefore between 10 and 10000:14:38
times smaller than a cell00:14:40
but make no mistake00:14:43
this ridiculously small size makes them00:14:46
extremely dangerous00:14:48
these microscopic entities are composed00:14:51
of genetic material such as DNA or RNA00:14:56
they are then said to be intracellular00:14:59
parasites as they reproduce inside the00:15:03
host cells they infect00:15:06
although they are not considered living00:15:08
beings they can still replicate and00:15:11
propagate autonomously00:15:15
anyway back to our descent into the00:15:18
world of the infinitely small00:15:21
if we take the size of the smallest00:15:23
viruses I.E around 20 nanometers were00:15:28
still Giants compared to the elementary00:15:30
building blocks that make up matter the00:15:33
famous atoms00:15:36
their size varies according to the00:15:38
element in question00:15:40
but overall they are of the order of 1000:15:44
to the minus 10 power meters00:15:47
or 100 picometers or 0.1 nanometer00:15:54
this is particularly true of the00:15:56
hydrogen atom composed of just one00:15:59
proton and one electron00:16:03
it is two times smaller than a carbon00:16:06
atom whose diameter is around 0.200:16:10
nanometers00:16:12
that said talking about the diameter of00:16:15
an atom is a gross simplification00:16:19
in reality its size is determined by the00:16:23
distribution of electrons around the00:16:25
atomic nucleus00:16:27
most of an atom's mass is concentrated00:16:30
in its nucleus which is itself made up00:16:33
of protons and neutrons00:16:36
electrons on the other hand are much00:16:39
lighter and occupy a much larger volume00:16:44
so the size of an atom is determined by00:16:47
the volume the electrons can occupy00:16:50
around the nucleus00:16:53
this is the electron cloud00:16:56
the electrons always remain at fixed00:16:59
Quantified distances00:17:01
these are called outer electron layers00:17:06
all this may seem rather complex to you00:17:10
to illustrate this distribution let's00:17:14
take an example with elements on a00:17:16
macroscopic scale00:17:18
[Music]00:17:20
imagine that the Moon is an electron and00:17:23
the Earth is the nucleus of an atom in00:17:27
this hypothesis the moon can orbit the00:17:29
Earth but only on certain well-defined00:17:32
radii00:17:34
also imagine that the moon does not move00:17:37
on a two-dimensional plane but on the00:17:40
surface of a sphere00:17:43
its position takes into account all00:17:46
three dimensions of space but always00:17:49
with a fixed distance from the earth00:17:51
corresponding to the various external00:17:55
electronic layers00:17:57
the moon can potentially be found00:18:00
anywhere on one of these layers with00:18:04
greater or lesser probabilities of00:18:06
presence in certain places00:18:09
and the only way to know its exact00:18:12
position is to take a measurement00:18:16
by repeating the measurements a large00:18:18
number of times we can then estimate the00:18:22
probability of presence for each zone of00:18:24
each layer00:18:25
[Music]00:18:26
it's exactly the same principle with the00:18:30
electrons that gravitate around Atomic00:18:32
nuclei00:18:34
this uncertainty about their presence is00:18:37
purely Quantum in nature00:18:40
in reality the moon does not behave at00:18:44
all like an electron its position can be00:18:47
determined with great Precision simply00:18:50
by calculation and without direct00:18:53
observation00:18:55
but due to the quantum nature of00:18:57
electrons their exact position at a00:19:01
given moment is always unknown if no00:19:03
measurements are taken00:19:05
in physics this is called an atomic00:19:08
orbital00:19:10
this is a mathematical function that00:19:13
gives us the probability of an00:19:14
electron's presence around a nucleus in00:19:17
a given region00:19:19
keep these explanations in mind as they00:19:22
will be useful for the rest of our00:19:24
journey00:19:25
they also help us to understand why00:19:29
atoms falsely represented as marbles are00:19:33
in fact mainly made up of vacuum00:19:37
[Music]00:19:41
to better understand this let's return00:19:44
to our hydrogen atom and shrink it down00:19:47
to its size of 0.1 nanometers00:19:51
at this point we're fast approaching the00:19:54
infinitely small00:19:57
at 0.1 nanometers were smaller than00:20:01
mankind is in relation to the sun00:20:04
to understand00:20:06
just how disproportionately small atoms00:20:09
are we can also give the following00:20:12
estimate00:20:14
the body of an average adult would00:20:16
contain one hundred thousand times more00:20:20
atoms than there are stars in the entire00:20:23
observable universe00:20:25
in other words something like 7 times 1000:20:29
to the 27th power atoms00:20:32
when you hear these figures your brain00:20:34
may be on fire00:20:37
but to really observe the smallest known00:20:39
elements of matter we still have to go00:20:42
all the way down to its heart00:20:45
and once again the drop is dizzying00:20:49
as we said the hydrogen nucleus is made00:20:53
up of a single proton00:20:55
this proton is not a picometer but a00:20:59
femtometer00:21:00
that's 10 to the minus 15th power meters00:21:05
to be more precise the size of a proton00:21:09
is00:21:10
0.877 femtometers00:21:14
hydrogen's core is therefore 10 00000:21:18
times smaller than the atom itself00:21:21
to give you an image if hydrogen's00:21:24
Atomic Cloud where the diameter of a00:21:27
soccer stadium its nucleus would be no00:21:30
bigger than a marble placed in the00:21:33
center of the pitch00:21:35
as for the electron it is considered an00:21:38
elementary particle I.E it is not made00:21:41
up of smaller parts00:21:44
it is very difficult to estimate its00:21:46
size which has never been precisely00:21:49
determined00:21:51
however scientists agree that it would00:21:54
be less than 10 to the minus 22 power00:21:57
meters00:21:58
so to return to our soccer stadium00:22:01
example if the proton is a marble in the00:22:05
middle of the pitch the electron would00:22:08
be no bigger than the smallest virus00:22:12
just as we are unable to imagine the00:22:16
infinite expanse of our universe we are00:22:19
unable to conceptualize the size of the00:22:22
most Elementary particles00:22:25
in any case after this formidable00:22:29
descent into the realm of the infinitely00:22:31
small we can now Plunge Into the Heart00:22:33
of atoms00:22:39
we are now on the scale of atoms00:22:43
but before we discover what's hidden00:22:45
deep inside them let's first take a look00:22:48
at how they behave in relation to each00:22:50
other00:22:52
as you probably know all the matter00:22:55
around us is made up of atoms and00:22:57
molecules00:22:58
we can interact with it and our bodies00:23:01
are subject to the same laws of physics00:23:05
hypothetically there are also other00:23:07
forms of matter that don't interact with00:23:10
the atoms we know00:23:13
the most famous of these is dark matter00:23:16
but to avoid getting lost in the limbo00:23:19
of the material world will concentrate00:23:22
solely on known matter00:23:25
as we've just explained everything00:23:28
around us is made up of atoms your body00:23:31
the food you eat the clothes you wear00:23:34
the air you breathe or even the screen00:23:37
on which you're watching this video00:23:40
but to form the countless types of00:23:42
elements we know atoms have to come00:23:45
together and combine00:23:48
this is how molecules are born00:23:51
for example a hydrogen atom can bond00:23:54
with another hydrogen atom to form00:23:57
dihydrogen00:23:59
two hydrogen atoms can also bond with an00:24:02
oxygen atom00:24:04
to form a dihydrogen monoxide molecule00:24:07
in other words a water molecule00:24:11
it's as if each atom were a Lego brick00:24:14
with its own shape00:24:16
bricks can be assembled by certain00:24:19
forces00:24:20
deconstructed by others and reassembled00:24:23
to create a new element00:24:25
this cycle of creation and destruction00:24:28
is happening all the time all around us00:24:32
sometimes it gives rise to small00:24:35
molecules like dihydrogen dioxygen or00:24:39
even dinitrogen00:24:41
each composed of just two atoms00:24:45
but in other cases the molecules created00:24:49
are extremely long and complex00:24:52
these are known as macromolecules00:24:56
this is particularly true of polymers00:24:59
long chains of molecules with00:25:01
interesting physical properties00:25:04
there are natural polymers such as the00:25:07
starch and cereals or the nucleic acids00:25:11
in DNA00:25:12
there are also synthetic polymers the00:25:16
famous Plastics such as polystyrene00:25:20
but one of the largest molecules is a00:25:23
natural protein called Titan or00:25:26
connectin00:25:28
it's also the largest known protein00:25:31
it plays a crucial role in muscle00:25:34
structure and elasticity00:25:37
if you want to name it by its scientific00:25:40
name you'll need a lot of Courage00:25:42
because its name is made up of over 6400:25:46
000 letters00:25:48
as for its size it can reach several00:25:51
micrometers in length due to the thirty00:25:54
thousand or so amino acids that make it00:25:57
up00:25:58
all this makes us wonder about the00:26:01
forces that enable such tiny atoms to00:26:04
bind together to form elements as00:26:07
complex as they are strong00:26:10
naively enough we might think of gravity00:26:15
unfortunately its intensity is linked to00:26:18
the mass of the objects00:26:21
since atoms have virtually zero Mass00:26:24
this hypothesis is out of the question00:26:28
but then how do they relate to each00:26:30
other00:26:34
well to find out we'll have to go back00:26:37
to our physics and chemistry lessons00:26:40
let's start with the best known Bond the00:26:44
covalent bond00:26:46
in a covalent bond atoms share one or00:26:50
more pairs of electrons to achieve a00:26:52
more stable electronic configuration00:26:55
the shared electrons create a mutual00:26:58
attraction between the atom's nuclei00:27:00
thus maintaining the bond00:27:04
to put it more simply it's as if two00:27:07
atoms pooled their resources in this00:27:10
case electrons to guarantee their00:27:13
stability00:27:15
let's call it an exchange of courtesies00:27:18
if you will00:27:20
the covalent bond is the strongest and00:27:24
most widespread Atomic Bond00:27:27
but they're also so-called ionic bonds00:27:30
based on the same principle00:27:33
here atoms transfer all or part of their00:27:37
electrons to form positive and negative00:27:40
ions00:27:43
an ion is simply an atom that carries a00:27:46
positive or negative charge due to a00:27:49
lack or surplus of electrons gravitating00:27:53
around it00:27:54
yes electrons are particles with a00:27:58
negative electrical charge00:28:01
as a result the force of attraction00:28:04
between ions of opposite charge hold00:28:07
atoms together00:28:09
do you still follow00:28:11
normally yes because so far we haven't00:28:15
tackled very complex subjects00:28:18
however when our journey takes us into00:28:21
the Realms of quantum phenomena things00:28:24
are likely to get a little more00:28:25
complicated00:28:27
but back to our bonds00:28:30
in addition to ionic and covalent bonds00:28:34
there are also metallic bonds00:28:38
in this case atoms release their00:28:41
electrons and the layer furthest from00:28:43
the nucleus00:28:44
this is called the valence shell00:28:48
the electrons thus released spin between00:28:51
the metal atoms creating an00:28:54
electrostatic attraction between the00:28:56
positively charged ions00:28:59
the result is the solid malleable00:29:03
structure is typical of metals00:29:06
perhaps you're also familiar with Van00:29:09
Der waals forces00:29:11
these are exerted between molecules at00:29:14
Short distances but their impact is00:29:17
rather weak compared to the previous00:29:20
bonds00:29:22
they are due to Temporary fluctuations00:29:24
in the distribution of electric charges00:29:28
creating an attraction00:29:31
finally there are hydrogen bonds00:29:35
these come into play when a hydrogen00:29:38
atom bonds to a highly electronegative00:29:41
element00:29:42
in other words an element capable of00:29:46
strongly attracting electrons to itself00:29:49
examples include oxygen nitrogen and00:29:54
fluorine00:29:56
in this configuration the hydrogen atom00:29:59
develops a slight positive charge as its00:30:03
electron is partially captured by00:30:06
another atom00:30:08
this creates an electrostatic Bond known00:30:12
as a hydrogen bond00:30:14
these bonds are stronger than Van Der00:30:17
waals forces and are at the root of many00:30:20
biological and chemical phenomena00:30:23
for example00:30:25
they enter water to form droplets that00:30:28
adhere to surfaces00:30:30
it is also this force that enables00:30:33
geckos to climb walls00:30:37
hydrogen bonds are even involved in the00:30:39
stability of proteins in the structure00:30:42
of DNA00:30:43
so without even getting to the heart of00:30:46
atoms we can see that they are00:30:49
incredibly complex00:30:52
they obey forces of their own which give00:30:55
rise to the laws of matter that we00:30:58
observe on our own scale yet are unable00:31:01
to understand00:31:03
and now that we've seen how many atoms00:31:06
behave in relation to each other it's00:31:09
time to continue our journey by00:31:12
observing them in isolation00:31:15
just as there are large individuals and00:31:17
smaller ones atoms come in many00:31:20
different forms00:31:22
these shapes are characterized by the00:31:25
number of electrons they possess and the00:31:28
elements that make up their nuclei00:31:32
these elements are called nucleons but00:31:35
you probably know them better as protons00:31:38
and neutrons00:31:40
the more nucleons an atomic nucleus00:31:43
possesses the more massive the atom that00:31:47
carries it00:31:48
in fact hydrogen with just one proton is00:31:53
the lightest atom00:31:55
as for the heaviest atom its uranium-23800:32:00
its nucleus contains 92 protons and 14600:32:04
neutrons00:32:07
despite being the most massive of the00:32:10
atomic bestiary its mass remains00:32:13
ridiculously low on our scale00:32:16
around 4 to the 10 to the minus 25 power00:32:19
kilograms00:32:22
and if you're wondering about its00:32:24
diameter it's 350 picometers00:32:28
or00:32:29
0.35 times 10 to the minus 10 power00:32:33
meters00:32:35
and yet it Remains the king of all atoms00:32:39
found in nature00:32:41
other even more imposing elements have00:32:44
been created in the laboratory00:32:47
not least organism officially the00:32:51
heaviest element on the periodic table00:32:54
artificially synthesized for the first00:32:57
time in 200200:32:59
it is highly unstable00:33:02
disintegrating in less than a00:33:04
millisecond00:33:06
today many scientists believe that it is00:33:09
impossible to create a new heavier00:33:12
element but others maintain the opposite00:33:16
in any case to avoid making things00:33:20
unnecessarily complex we'll continue our00:33:23
adventure at the heart of a simple atom00:33:26
the oxygen atom00:33:30
thank you00:33:33
the oxygen atom contains 16 nucleons00:33:38
that's eight protons and eight neutrons00:33:42
around this hard core gravitate eight00:33:46
electrons00:33:48
these form what is known as the atom's00:33:51
peripheral cloud00:33:54
since electrons are negatively charged00:33:56
particles they are attracted to00:33:59
positively charged protons00:34:02
a bit like the North and South poles of00:34:05
a magnet attracting each other00:34:07
in fact this electrostatic attraction00:34:12
maintains the atom's structural00:34:14
Integrity in perfect charge balance00:34:18
and yes while atoms bind together via00:34:22
various cohesive forces other forces are00:34:25
also at work to ensure their stability00:34:29
let's do some Elementary physics00:34:33
at present it is estimated that four00:34:36
major forces govern our universe00:34:39
these are known as the fundamental00:34:42
interactions00:34:44
on a macroscopic scale the two most00:34:48
prevalent interactions are gravitation00:34:51
and electromagnetism00:34:54
but at the center of atoms other forces00:34:57
take over00:34:59
these are the strong and weak nuclear00:35:01
interactions00:35:03
strong interaction holds the atomic00:35:06
nucleus together00:35:09
this extremely powerful force acts00:35:12
between nucleons00:35:14
it holds protons together despite the00:35:18
electrostatic repulsion due to their00:35:21
positive charge00:35:23
to take the example of magnets again00:35:26
you've no doubt already tried sticking00:35:30
two magnets with the same poles together00:35:32
which tend to repel each other00:35:36
here we can make the following analogy00:35:40
the magnets that repel each other are00:35:42
the protons and your hands that exert00:35:45
pressure to stick them together are the00:35:48
strong nuclear force00:35:51
just as gravitation is insured by00:35:55
gravitational waves the existence of00:35:58
which was recently demonstrated00:36:00
the strong nuclear force is insured by00:36:04
strange particles called gluons00:36:07
don't worry we'll come back to this in00:36:09
the next part of our Atomic Odyssey00:36:13
as for the weak nuclear forces they act00:36:16
between leptons and quarks00:36:19
in simple terms leptons are simply00:36:23
Elementary subatomic particles like00:36:26
electrons00:36:28
quarks are the building blocks of00:36:30
protons and neutrons00:36:33
weak nuclear forces are responsible for00:36:36
certain types of radioactive decay00:36:39
in which one particle is transformed00:36:41
into another00:36:43
bees are mediated by other subatomic00:36:47
elements called bosons00:36:50
once again we'll explain all this in00:36:53
more detail00:36:55
as we turn our attention to the forces00:36:58
that maintain the internal organization00:37:01
of atoms we slowly begin to scratch00:37:04
their surface00:37:06
this microscopic excavation allows us to00:37:10
discover many more of the strange00:37:13
particles mentioned above00:37:15
now it's time to continue our00:37:18
exploration and meet the subatomic00:37:20
particles00:37:22
a formidable bestiary of small00:37:26
mysterious Elements which are00:37:28
nonetheless at the origin of the reality00:37:31
in which we evolve00:37:32
[Music]00:37:35
let's take a look back at our journey so00:37:38
far00:37:39
our observable universe is about 9300:37:42
billion light years across00:37:44
within this Cosmic immensity our00:37:47
galaxies which cluster together in00:37:50
clusters00:37:52
galaxies usually a hundred thousand00:37:56
light years across contain an incredible00:37:59
quantity of stars Stellar gas and dust00:38:03
these Stars millions of kilometers00:38:06
across usually capture planets in their00:38:10
orbits00:38:11
and we know for sure that one of them00:38:14
contains life our beautiful blue planet00:38:19
everything we can see with the naked eye00:38:21
from the tallest skyscrapers to the00:38:24
tiniest fleas is on the so-called00:38:28
macroscopic scale00:38:30
then there's the microscopic World which00:38:34
can only be seen through a microscope00:38:37
that is with Dimensions smaller than 0.100:38:41
millimeter00:38:44
but if we go further down as we have00:38:47
done we find that living beings are made00:38:50
up of cells00:38:52
these in turn are made up of DNA itself00:38:56
made up of smaller elements00:38:59
but what are molecules if not an00:39:01
assembly of atoms00:39:03
and what are atoms if not a bubble a00:39:06
vacuum in which electrons of an elusive00:39:09
nature move around a nucleus of nucleons00:39:13
all governed by strong and weak00:39:16
fundamental nuclear interactions00:39:20
this descent into the world of the00:39:23
infinitely minuscule is already00:39:25
incredibly dizzying00:39:27
and yet it's possible to go even further00:39:31
yes even further than if we were to go00:39:35
to the very edge of the observable00:39:37
universe00:39:39
on such a scale the journey seems00:39:42
infinite00:39:43
for at the heart of protons and neutrons00:39:46
we find yet more Elementary particles00:39:50
the famous quarks00:39:53
[Music]00:39:55
while ancient Greeks such as Democritus00:39:58
and epicurus had theorized about the00:40:01
notion of atoms in their time without00:40:03
being able to validate this hypothesis00:40:07
the word would be revived many years00:40:10
later in the 18th century00:40:13
scientific progress had made it possible00:40:16
to prove the existence of these00:40:18
Elementary building blocks of matter00:40:21
physicist John Dalton was one of the00:40:24
first to revive the concept of the atom00:40:27
in the 1800s00:40:30
subsequently other scientists such as JJ00:40:33
Thompson00:40:35
Ernest Rutherford and Albert Einstein00:40:37
validated and enriched this hypothesis00:40:41
it would be demonstrated that the atom00:40:44
is not unbreakable or indivisible as the00:40:47
Greeks thought but rather that it is a00:40:50
mainly empty body in the strictest sense00:40:53
of the term00:40:54
composed of an electrically charged00:40:56
nucleus around which electrons move00:41:00
Einstein also demonstrated the wave00:41:03
corpuscle duality of particles such as00:41:06
photons laying the foundations for00:41:09
quantum physics00:41:11
yet little did these Brilliant Minds00:41:14
realize that the atom was not the end00:41:17
but a new gateway to an even more00:41:20
complex world00:41:22
the so-called subatomic universe00:41:26
and its main occupant is none other than00:41:28
the cork which we mentioned earlier00:41:32
let's take a closer look at the cork00:41:35
it will be an excellent introduction to00:41:37
the subject before we go on to discover00:41:39
more about its congeners00:41:44
[Music]00:41:46
first of all it's important to remember00:41:48
that a quark is not a single entity it's00:41:52
a term used to describe a group of00:41:54
fundamental particles00:41:56
we speak of fundamental particles when00:41:59
they cannot be divided into smaller00:42:01
parts00:42:02
at least not according to our current00:42:04
knowledge00:42:06
quarks are therefore considered the00:42:09
elementary building blocks of matter00:42:12
they are responsible for the formation00:42:14
of protons neutrons and other subatomic00:42:18
particles00:42:19
[Music]00:42:20
the discovery of quarks dates back to00:42:23
the 1960s when physicists Marie Gelman00:42:27
and George zwig independently propose00:42:30
the theory soberly entitled Quark Theory00:42:35
they put forward the hypothesis that00:42:38
protons neutrons and similar particles00:42:42
were made up of smaller indivisible00:42:45
particles00:42:47
it wasn't until 1975 that the first00:42:51
Quark was observed experimentally thanks00:42:54
to cern's particle gas pedal00:42:58
this technological feat is located on00:43:01
the French Swiss border near Geneva and00:43:04
is also known as the Large Hadron00:43:07
Collider or LHC00:43:10
a circular tube 27 kilometers or 1800:43:15
miles long buried underground it00:43:18
accelerates particles to near light00:43:21
speeds until they collide00:43:24
the result is a microscopic shock but00:43:28
one of unprecedented violence enabling00:43:31
matter to be fragmented to reveal its00:43:34
constituent parts00:43:35
[Music]00:43:36
but let's get back to our little quarks00:43:40
we currently know six types the last of00:43:43
which was discovered in 1997.00:43:46
here's the list one up quarks two down00:43:51
quarks Three Strange quarks four charm00:43:56
quarks five top quarks six and bottom00:44:01
quarks00:44:03
each of these quarks has unique00:44:05
properties00:44:06
these include Mass electric charge and00:44:09
spin00:44:11
their charge is said to be fractional00:44:14
corresponding to either two-thirds or00:44:16
minus one-third of the charge of an00:44:19
electron00:44:20
as for spin it's important to Define00:44:23
this notion as its ubiquitous in00:44:26
particle physics00:44:28
it's a Quantum property that indicates00:44:30
how a particle interacts with its peers00:44:33
and with magnetic fields00:44:35
it can be seen as a kind of internal00:44:38
rotation of particles00:44:40
to give a concrete example let's take00:44:43
the Earth's motion around the Sun00:44:46
our planet revolves around it it moves00:44:49
in an orbit with a certain speed00:44:51
this corresponds to its momentum00:44:55
but the Earth also rotates on itself00:44:58
the quantity associated with its00:45:01
rotation is called its angular momentum00:45:04
in quantum physics the Notions of speed00:45:07
and position no longer make sense00:45:10
this is the uncertainty principle but00:45:14
we'll come back to that later00:45:16
however angular momentum retains a00:45:19
certain relevance albeit in a more00:45:22
abstract sense00:45:24
spin is therefore the equivalent of00:45:27
angular momentum but on a Quantum scale00:45:32
for example the electron has a spin of00:45:35
one half00:45:36
this means it can exist in two different00:45:39
states spin up and spin down00:45:42
it's as if it had two possible types of00:45:45
internal rotation and only two00:45:49
we can imagine these two states as00:45:51
arrows pointing in opposite directions00:45:55
the importance of spin lies in the fact00:45:58
that it determines how electrons00:46:00
interact with each other and with other00:46:02
particles00:46:04
for example in the magnetization of a00:46:07
material electrons with spins aligned in00:46:10
the same direction help to create an00:46:14
overall magnetic field00:46:16
spin is a complex concept but it00:46:20
describes a fundamental property of00:46:22
particles00:46:23
it plays a crucial role in various00:46:26
Quantum phenomena that translate to the00:46:30
macroscopic scale00:46:32
so much for physical properties00:46:38
now pay close attention because things00:46:41
get complicated00:46:43
together the six types of Quark form a00:46:47
large family of Elementary particles00:46:49
hadrons00:46:52
but within this family there are two00:46:54
classes of particles00:46:56
first there are the baryons made up of00:46:59
an indissociable system of three quarks00:47:02
like protons and neutrons00:47:05
this is why the classical matter that00:47:08
surrounds us is called baryonic matter00:47:13
then there are misons00:47:16
these are formed by a bizarre system of00:47:19
an even number of quarks and anti-corks00:47:23
all known quarks belong to one of these00:47:26
two classes00:47:28
it is impossible to find an isolated00:47:31
cork in its natural state as would be00:47:35
the case for an electron for example00:47:38
so quarks always form combinations00:47:40
called hadrons00:47:43
this very special property is known as00:47:46
hadron confinement00:47:49
a name that has the Merit of being clear00:47:53
earlier we spoke of the strong00:47:55
interaction that holds protons together00:47:58
in the nuclei of atoms00:48:01
but in reality this interaction affects00:48:04
the quarks themselves00:48:07
in fact the quarks of a single proton00:48:10
are Neutron remain welded together to00:48:14
form hadrons as they are constantly00:48:16
exchanging bosons00:48:19
a word of advice00:48:21
take notes if you don't want to lose00:48:23
track of the story00:48:25
the term boson also covers a group of00:48:28
particles00:48:29
these particles act as vectors for the00:48:32
transmission of the four Great Universal00:48:35
forces00:48:36
gravitation electromagnetism00:48:40
the strong nuclear interaction and the00:48:43
weak nuclear interaction00:48:45
the bosons responsible for the strong00:48:48
interaction are called gluons00:48:52
this term suits them quite well since00:48:55
light glue they keep the elementary00:48:57
building blocks of matter together00:49:00
don't worry we'll be coming back to the00:49:02
bosons behind the other three00:49:04
interactions shortly00:49:06
with each passing moment the bosons at00:49:10
the heart of matter Exchange gluons00:49:13
this exchange takes place within00:49:16
nucleons themselves to ensure the00:49:19
cohesion of hadrons but also between00:49:22
nucleons and the same atomic nucleus to00:49:26
keep them welded together00:49:28
at very short distances as is the case00:49:32
at the subatomic level the strong00:49:35
interaction is more intense than00:49:37
electromagnetism00:49:40
as a result protons despite their00:49:43
repelling electric charges remain00:49:46
grouped together00:49:48
this interaction is so powerful that in00:49:52
theory it would take an infinite Force00:49:54
to break up a triptych of quarks like00:49:57
those at the heart of nucleons00:50:00
this explains why no single Quark is00:50:04
found00:50:05
today quarks are considered the ultimate00:50:09
subdivision of matter00:50:12
however this statement is problematic as00:50:15
it limits many theories that attempt to00:50:17
solve the mysteries of quantum physics00:50:21
the most popular being string theory00:50:24
but again we'll have time to come back00:50:27
to this in more detail in a few moments00:50:30
[Music]00:50:34
after quarks and more generally hadrons00:50:38
the other major family of subatomic00:50:40
particles is that of leptons00:50:43
this group includes our famous electrons00:50:47
but as you'd expect00:50:49
leptons also come in different classes00:50:52
first there are electron leptons or00:50:56
electrons00:50:57
then there are muonic leptons or muons00:51:01
and finally there's the Tau lepton00:51:06
each of these three leptons is00:51:08
associated with a neutrino another00:51:10
elementary particle with almost zero00:51:13
mass and a neutral electric charge00:51:16
[Music]00:51:18
among leptons we have a total of six00:51:20
particles00:51:22
one the electron two the muon three the00:51:27
Tau particle also called Taiwan four and00:51:32
the three neutrinos specific to each of00:51:34
these entities00:51:36
leptons are also stable particles they00:51:40
interact mainly via electromagnetic and00:51:43
weak forces00:51:45
they are not subject to the strong00:51:47
nuclear force which is responsible for00:51:50
the cohesion of atomic nuclei00:51:54
leptons like quarks have only two types00:51:58
of charge00:51:59
zero or minus one00:52:02
because of their charge and Mass00:52:04
properties leptons play a crucial role00:52:07
in nuclear reactions and radioactive00:52:10
decays00:52:12
they form the basis of particle creation00:52:15
and Annihilation processes00:52:18
what's more they are of great importance00:52:21
and understanding the fundamental00:52:24
interactions in the universe00:52:26
for example neutrinos have recently been00:52:30
recognized for their role in00:52:32
astrophysical phenomena such as00:52:34
supernovas neutrons stars and black00:52:37
holes00:52:38
they are also being studied to00:52:41
understand the expansion of the universe00:52:48
we've talked about leptons and hadrons00:52:51
but we've also started to talk about00:52:54
another type of subatomic particle00:52:56
bosons00:52:58
these could be described as the vectors00:53:01
responsible for transmitting the four00:53:03
Great Universal forces to the other00:53:06
particles00:53:08
to illustrate this with an image we00:53:10
could say that leptons and hadrons are00:53:13
bricks while bosons are cement00:53:16
together they make up all the matter00:53:19
around us and give our universe the00:53:22
strict laws we know00:53:24
as we have seen gluons are the bosons00:53:27
that ensure the strong interaction and00:53:30
cohesion of atomic cores00:53:33
they give life to neutrons protons and00:53:36
mesons00:53:37
gluons have no mass and there are eight00:53:40
in all00:53:42
next comes electromagnetic interaction00:53:46
if you know anything about physics00:53:48
you'll already know that the vector of00:53:51
this interaction is none other than the00:53:53
photon00:53:55
often referred to as grains of light it00:53:58
would be more accurate to speak of00:54:00
energy carriers00:54:02
they are produced by radiation or00:54:05
scattering when an atom receives energy00:54:09
to return to a more stable State the00:54:12
atom in turn emits photons which carry00:54:16
energy and therefore light00:54:19
yes depending on the energy of the00:54:21
photons emitted atoms will radiate with00:54:25
different colors00:54:27
visible colors from Violet to red blue00:54:30
green and yellow00:54:32
but also invisible colors00:54:36
electromagnetic waves in the infrared or00:54:38
ultraviolet range00:54:40
photons also help to structure atoms00:54:44
photons link electrons to the atomic00:54:47
nucleus00:54:48
last but not least photons have zero00:54:52
Mass00:54:53
they cannot disintegrate into lighter00:54:56
particles and are therefore completely00:54:58
stable00:55:00
after photons and gluons come the W plus00:55:04
W minus and Z zero bosons00:55:08
these are the expression of the weak00:55:11
interaction00:55:12
they have a very high mass for subatomic00:55:15
particles so their range is quite00:55:17
restricted00:55:19
note that this interaction affects all00:55:22
matter particles both leptons and00:55:25
hadrons00:55:26
finally gravitation is a special case00:55:31
of the four Great forces it is indeed00:55:34
the weakest but it is also the only one00:55:37
with an infinite range00:55:39
as for the boson that carries gravity it00:55:43
should be the graviton00:55:45
unfortunately this has never yet been00:55:48
observed00:55:49
on the other hand we now know that00:55:52
gravitational waves do exist00:55:55
they were first detected in 2015 by the00:55:58
ligo and Virgo collaborations following00:56:02
the distant Collision of two massive00:56:04
black holes00:56:06
exactly 100 years after they were00:56:09
predicted by the brilliant Albert00:56:11
Einstein in his theory of general00:56:13
relativity00:56:15
however the graviton question is still00:56:19
open00:56:20
to sum things up Elementary particles of00:56:23
matter transfer discrete quantities of00:56:26
energy to each other by exchanging00:56:28
bosons00:56:29
and each fundamental Force has its00:56:32
corresponding Boson00:56:34
that is if we accept the existence of00:56:37
the mysterious graviton00:56:40
all this classification of matter00:56:42
particles forces and carrier particles00:56:46
is organized under a model whose name00:56:49
may be familiar to you00:56:51
it's the standard model of particle00:56:54
physics00:57:00
in order to organize their discoveries00:57:03
and classify the various subatomic00:57:05
elements particle physicists have00:57:07
developed a theory to group everything00:57:10
together00:57:11
it's known as the standard model of00:57:14
particle physics or more simply the00:57:17
standard model00:57:19
this fundamental Theory describes00:57:22
Elementary particles and the forces that00:57:24
govern them00:57:26
it was developed in the 1970s with the00:57:29
aim of organizing the fundamental00:57:31
constituents of matter and the00:57:33
interactions between them00:57:36
the model is based on the principle of00:57:38
symmetry and builds on the earlier work00:57:41
of many scientists including James Clerk00:57:45
Maxwell Albert Einstein Niels Bohr and00:57:49
others00:57:50
over the years a number of discoveries00:57:53
such as those concerning individual00:57:56
quarks and neutrinos have reinforced The00:57:59
credibility of this model00:58:02
the standard model includes all quarks00:58:06
and leptons known as fermions as well as00:58:10
the bosons responsible for the00:58:12
fundamental interactions00:58:15
it is therefore based on the triptych00:58:18
particles forces and mediators00:58:22
but this model itself uses other00:58:25
theories to describe particles and their00:58:27
interactions00:58:29
these include the Symmetry principle and00:58:32
Quantum field Theory00:58:35
all this is quite complex for anyone00:58:38
without the requisite knowledge00:58:41
but to simplify things we can say that00:58:45
Quantum field theory is a mathematical00:58:48
framework used to describe Elementary00:58:50
particles and their interactions00:58:54
according to this Theory00:58:56
space is bathed in a set of fields00:58:59
these are mathematical entities that00:59:02
propagate through space and interact00:59:05
with particles00:59:07
Quantum fields are described by00:59:09
equations called field equations which00:59:13
specify how they evolve in space-time00:59:17
this theory is based on the principles00:59:20
of quantum mechanics which postulate00:59:23
that particles can be described by00:59:27
probabilistic wave functions00:59:29
thus one of its essential features is00:59:32
the notion of quantization00:59:36
according to this idea particles and00:59:39
Associated Fields exist in discrete00:59:42
quantized States rather than in an00:59:45
infinite continuum00:59:47
this implies that Elementary particles00:59:50
can have only certain discrete values of00:59:52
energy momentum charge and so on00:59:57
Quantum field theory is also based on01:00:00
the principle of superposition According01:00:03
to which Quantum States can be combined01:00:06
in a linear fashion to form new States01:00:10
this makes it possible to describe01:00:13
phenomena such as the creation and01:00:16
annihilation of particles as well as the01:00:19
interactions between them01:00:21
in short the standard model is more an01:00:25
attempt to unify different theories01:00:27
rather than a theory in its own right01:00:30
and to say the least it's a very01:00:33
successful attempt01:00:35
but unfortunately there are a few gray01:00:38
areas01:00:40
starting with gravity which is01:00:42
struggling to find its place in this01:00:44
model01:00:45
yes the standard model encompasses01:00:48
electromagnetic interactions as well as01:00:50
the strong and weak nuclear forces01:00:54
it explains very satisfactorily how01:00:57
these forces act on all matter particles01:01:01
it also predicted the existence of01:01:04
certain particles that were discovered01:01:06
years later in cern's particle Collider01:01:10
but what about gravity01:01:15
this is a crucial question because today01:01:18
gravity is not included in the standard01:01:20
model and the discovery of the famous01:01:23
gravitons is still a long way off01:01:26
on the one hand we have quantum theory01:01:29
used to describe the microscopic world01:01:33
and on the other we have the theory of01:01:35
general relativity used to describe the01:01:38
macroscopic world01:01:41
the problem is that nobody can reconcile01:01:44
the two01:01:46
on the face of it you'd think that this01:01:48
wouldn't be a problem since all you'd01:01:51
have to do is use quantum physics for01:01:53
the infinitely small and switch to01:01:55
general relativity for macroscopic01:01:57
phenomena but where's the limit01:02:00
when should the switch be made01:02:03
is there a threshold distance at which01:02:05
we instantly switch from quantum physics01:02:08
to relativity01:02:10
the unification of these two theories01:02:13
known as The Theory of Everything could01:02:16
well solve some of the enigmas that01:02:19
plague scientists01:02:21
these include the expansion of the01:02:23
universe The Disappearance of01:02:25
anti-matter after the big bang and many01:02:29
other questions01:02:31
and more questions are being added to01:02:34
the list01:02:35
at present gravity is negligible at the01:02:39
subatomic level01:02:40
this is because the intensity of this01:02:43
Force depends on the mass of objects01:02:45
which is virtually zero in the world of01:02:49
the infinitely small01:02:51
that said there are many special cases01:02:54
where intense gravity and microscopic01:02:58
scale exists side by side01:03:01
can you guess which ones01:03:04
the answer lies at the heart of black01:03:06
holes and in the very first instant of01:03:09
the universe01:03:10
where a phenomenal amount of matter is01:03:13
contained in a point of infinite density01:03:16
called a singularity01:03:19
adding gravitation to the quantum01:03:22
physics model would unlock the secrets01:03:24
of the heart of black holes and the01:03:27
origin of the Big Bang01:03:29
we also know that there are three groups01:03:32
or rather three generations as01:03:35
scientists call them of quarks and01:03:37
leptons with totally different masses01:03:41
but how can we explain the extent of01:03:44
this Mass scale01:03:46
not to mention the fact that the01:03:49
standard model doesn't perfectly01:03:51
describe neutrino oscillation or mass01:03:54
either01:03:55
researchers instinctively sense that01:03:58
they are missing a parameter01:04:01
there's a piece of data missing a piece01:04:04
of the puzzle missing01:04:06
and it's likely that the limits of human01:04:09
understanding will never allow us to01:04:11
arrive at a Theory of Everything01:04:14
the Ultimate Fantasy of every physicist01:04:18
a theory that would unite all the others01:04:21
and make it possible to describe all01:04:23
physical phenomena regardless of scale01:04:27
interesting Concepts such as01:04:29
supersymmetry string theory and loop01:04:33
quantum gravity attempt to extend the01:04:36
standard model to resolve these01:04:37
questions01:04:39
but nothing has been done01:04:41
we're still waiting for the famous01:04:43
Eureka that will finally relieve us of01:04:46
the weight of these questions01:04:48
nevertheless the standard model seems to01:04:51
be getting much closer to reality01:04:54
if the discoveries of black holes and01:04:57
gravitational waves were strong01:05:00
arguments in favor of Einstein's01:05:02
relativity another recent discovery has01:05:05
come to the fore in favor of the01:05:08
standard model01:05:10
this unexpected Discovery is the famous01:05:13
Higgs boson01:05:18
in 2012 CERN researchers made a01:05:22
sensational Discovery using their01:05:24
particle gas pedal01:05:26
they use their machine to accelerate01:05:28
protons to very high energies then01:05:31
collided them01:05:33
these high-energy shocks created01:05:36
conditions similar to those that existed01:05:39
just after the big bang01:05:43
for the search for the Higgs bosun01:05:46
involve the detection of its Decay01:05:49
products in its primordial environment01:05:53
the Higgs boson itself is unstable and01:05:57
disintegrates almost instantaneously01:06:00
into other sub-particles01:06:03
that's why scientists looked for01:06:05
signatures of these specific decays to01:06:08
identify the hidden Boson01:06:12
and then in July 2012 the discovery was01:06:16
announced01:06:18
the data collected showed significant01:06:21
markers01:06:22
corresponding to the expected signatures01:06:25
of the Higgs boson01:06:28
after a thorough analysis of the data01:06:31
the existence of the Higgs particle was01:06:34
officially confirmed01:06:37
this was some 50 years after British01:06:40
physicist Peter Higgs formulated the01:06:44
hypothetical existence of a Quantum01:06:46
object that would give particles Mass01:06:50
Higgs theory was that Elementary01:06:52
particles acquire their mass by01:06:55
interacting with a field that fills all01:06:58
space01:06:59
the more sensitive a particle is to this01:07:02
field the more massive it is01:07:06
and the quantum manifestation of this01:07:08
field is none other than a boson known01:07:12
as the Higgs boson01:07:15
in fact the most massive particles such01:07:18
as quarks and electrons interact01:07:21
strongly with the Higgs field while01:07:24
massless particles such as the photon do01:07:27
not interact with it at all01:07:30
at first glance all this seems rather01:07:33
far-fetched and yet it seems to be01:07:36
reality01:07:38
the discovery of the Higgs boson marked01:07:41
a turning point in the confirmation of01:07:43
the standard model01:07:45
it was also crucial to understanding the01:07:48
origin of electro-week symmetry01:07:52
but what is electro-week symmetry01:07:56
well when the universe was very hot just01:08:00
after the big bang the electromagnetic01:08:03
force and the weak Force were unified01:08:05
into a single Force the electro weak01:08:09
Force01:08:10
particles had no mass and moved at the01:08:14
speed of light01:08:16
as the universe cooled the Higgs field01:08:19
was triggered breaking this Symmetry and01:08:23
separating the electromagnetic and weak01:08:26
forces01:08:27
this field also gave particles their01:08:31
Mass creating the universe we know today01:08:35
it's fascinating to see how an entity as01:08:39
Tiny as a boson can explain the01:08:42
formation of our supposedly infinite01:08:45
universe01:08:47
so far our journey has taken us to the01:08:51
very edge of matter01:08:53
starting from our own scale we've01:08:56
descended to observe the smallest known01:08:58
particles that make up our world and01:09:01
order the physical laws of our universe01:09:05
we've also seen how scientists have01:09:08
unlocked the secrets of the atom and the01:09:11
theories they've used to organize their01:09:13
discoveries01:09:15
however we've said very little about the01:09:19
behavior of subatomic particles in their01:09:21
environment01:09:23
yes they obey their own laws01:09:27
codes that overturn our beliefs and test01:09:31
the limits of our understanding01:09:34
so it's time to move on to the final01:09:37
stage of our microscopic Odyssey01:09:40
but be warned to continue the adventure01:09:43
you'll have to set aside your beliefs01:09:46
and convictions about the limits of the01:09:49
possible01:09:50
you'll have to be prepared to question01:09:53
yourself and accept your inability to01:09:57
grasp the profound nature of the01:10:00
infinitely small01:10:02
as you can see we're about to enter a01:10:06
dimension as strange as it is01:10:08
fascinating01:10:09
the quantum world01:10:15
you've probably already heard of quantum01:10:18
physics perhaps you're even Vaguely01:10:21
Familiar with some of its most popular01:10:22
Concepts such as entanglement01:10:25
Heisenberg's uncertainty principle or01:10:28
quantum decoherence01:10:31
however it's unlikely that you really01:10:35
understand how it works and with good01:10:38
reason01:10:39
even the most imminent scientists have01:10:41
their doubts about this mysterious01:10:43
branch of particle physics01:10:47
rest assured we won't attempt to01:10:49
decipher all its Mysteries here01:10:52
instead we're going to explain some of01:10:55
its main principles as well as the01:10:58
theories that have emerged in its wake01:11:01
but first let's get down to Basics01:11:04
let's define what quantum physics01:11:07
actually is01:11:09
simply put it's a branch of physics that01:11:12
studies the fundamental properties of01:11:15
matter and energy at the atomic and01:11:18
subatomic scales01:11:20
it enables us to understand phenomena01:11:23
such as the structure of the atom the01:11:26
nature of light superposition quantum01:11:29
entanglement and wave particle duality01:11:33
yes in our current understanding of01:11:37
physics every particle can be likened to01:11:40
a wave in a field01:11:42
white for example is a wave in an01:11:46
electromagnetic field but also a stream01:11:49
of particles called photons01:11:52
this dual nature of subatomic particles01:11:56
notably electrons is called wave01:12:00
corpuscle duality01:12:02
this was demonstrated by the famous01:12:05
young slit experiment01:12:08
one of the most beautiful experiments in01:12:10
modern physics01:12:12
here's a brief summary01:12:15
in 1801 British physicist Thomas Young01:12:19
conducted an experiment to demonstrate01:12:22
the wave nature of light01:12:25
until then the scientific Community had01:12:28
believed that light was made up of01:12:30
particles as the great Isaac Newton had01:12:33
thought01:12:35
but Young's experiment proved otherwise01:12:38
by passing a beam of light through too01:12:41
tiny closely spaced slits young saw an01:12:45
interference pattern forming on the01:12:47
screen behind the slits01:12:50
since this pattern is characteristic of01:12:53
waves the debate was settled01:12:57
however a century later Albert Einstein01:13:01
who needs no introduction came to the01:13:03
fore with an idea that at first sight01:13:06
seemed absurd01:13:08
light is not a wave but a stream of01:13:11
corpuscles which he dubbed Quantum and01:13:14
later renamed photons01:13:17
he proposed an experiment to prove his01:13:19
assertion01:13:21
and the surprising thing was that his01:13:24
experimental results were indeed valid01:13:27
on the one hand young had succeeded in01:13:30
proving that light was a wave and on the01:13:33
other Einstein proved that it was made01:13:36
up of photons01:13:38
this discovery led to the photoelectric01:13:41
effect used to generate electricity via01:13:45
solar panels01:13:46
it even earned him a Nobel Prize in01:13:49
1921.01:13:52
at this point the debate on the nature01:13:54
of light was reignited and the question01:13:57
seemed insoluble01:14:00
later the young slit experiment was01:14:03
repeated not with a beam of light but01:14:06
with A continuous stream of electrons01:14:09
since electrons are particles they01:14:12
should have formed two distinct spots as01:14:14
they pass through the two slits01:14:17
but the result of the experiment left01:14:20
everyone speechless01:14:22
the photons did indeed make punctiform01:14:26
marks on the screen as particles would01:14:29
but all these marks form the pattern01:14:32
typical of waves an interference pattern01:14:37
yes instead of just two distinct beams a01:14:42
series of luminous interferences were01:14:45
observed on the screen similar to the01:14:48
alternating bands of light and dark01:14:51
the conclusion was clear01:14:53
to form this pattern each electron must01:14:57
pass through both slits at the same time01:15:00
otherwise interference is impossible01:15:04
however01:15:05
when intercepted on the screen the01:15:08
electrons form a point characteristic of01:15:11
a particle01:15:12
the scientists then measured the01:15:15
electrons as they pass between the slits01:15:18
and what a surprise01:15:21
if we try to observe the electrons at01:15:24
this precise point the interference01:15:26
patterns disappear and the electrons01:15:29
behave as simple particles passing01:15:32
through one or other of the two slits01:15:36
this completely mind-boggling phenomenon01:15:39
was one of the cornerstones in the01:15:41
development of quantum physics01:15:44
we now know that certain particles such01:15:47
as photons and electrons are both waves01:15:50
and particles01:15:52
but we also know that experimental01:15:55
measurements force in quotation marks01:15:58
Quantum objects to adopt one of these01:16:02
two states01:16:04
and that's just one of the crazy01:16:07
properties of quantum particles01:16:10
wanna know more01:16:12
all right but hang in there because you01:16:14
could lose your footing when faced with01:16:16
the complexity of these Notions01:16:20
[Music]01:16:23
one example is Heisenberg's uncertainty01:16:27
principle01:16:28
this was formulated by the physicist of01:16:31
the same name in 1927.01:16:34
it is one of the founding Notions of01:16:36
quantum physics01:16:38
it tells us that there is a fundamental01:16:41
limit to the Precision with which we can01:16:44
simultaneously measure certain pairs of01:16:48
complementary physical quantities such01:16:50
as the position and momentum of a01:16:52
particle01:16:53
in other words the more precise we try01:16:57
to be in measuring the position of a01:16:59
Quantum particle such as an electron the01:17:03
more we lose Precision in measuring its01:17:06
momentum01:17:07
on a macroscopic scale this question01:17:10
doesn't arise01:17:13
we are perfectly capable of knowing the01:17:16
position momentum and velocity of a01:17:19
Celestial body at any given moment01:17:23
it's important to understand that this01:17:26
uncertainty has nothing to do with the01:17:29
Precision of our measuring instruments01:17:33
rather it's as if nature itself were01:17:36
erecting barriers to prevent us from01:17:38
penetrating its Mysteries01:17:41
it's almost as if the laws of physics01:17:44
are designed to prevent us from grasping01:17:47
their full complexity01:17:50
this raises a host of questions01:17:53
is this limitation voluntary01:17:56
is there a higher entity that knowingly01:17:59
hinders and limits our understanding of01:18:01
the world01:18:03
are we forced to evolve in order to01:18:06
uncover the secrets of matter01:18:09
is this a way for an omnipotent01:18:11
omniscient Observer to test our limits01:18:15
to tell the truth it doesn't really01:18:17
matter01:18:18
it's not in man's nature to be01:18:20
discouraged by the great existential01:18:22
questions01:18:24
and as long as a curious brain lives01:18:27
answers will continue to be relentlessly01:18:30
pursued01:18:32
after all things that seemed01:18:34
unimaginable a few centuries ago are now01:18:38
at the heart of our societies01:18:41
and who knows what discoveries await Us01:18:43
in the decades to come01:18:46
the fact remains that the quantum World01:18:49
resists Us For Better or For Worse01:18:52
and yet we are beginning to understand01:18:55
its various nuances01:18:58
wave corpuscle Duality the uncertainty01:19:01
principle superposition quantum01:19:04
entanglement01:19:06
the veil of incomprehension remains01:19:09
thick but it's gradually dissipating01:19:12
and the discoveries have also led to a01:19:15
host of theories01:19:17
theories that aim to unify the laws of01:19:20
the quantum world with those of the01:19:22
macroscopic world01:19:24
remember the standard model while quite01:19:28
promising does have a few limitations01:19:32
and to fill this void some theorists01:19:35
have been racking their brains to come01:19:36
up with more satisfactory alternative01:19:40
explanations01:19:42
the most famous of all of course is01:19:44
string theory01:19:46
although no experiment has been able to01:19:49
validate this Theory we're going to take01:19:52
a look at it01:19:57
string theory is a must for anyone01:20:00
trying to explore the foundations of01:20:02
matter01:20:03
but despite its celebrity few people01:20:06
really know what the ideas behind it are01:20:09
so let's take a closer look01:20:12
in fact String Theory attempts to01:20:15
develop a unified description of the01:20:17
universe by combining quantum gravity01:20:20
and the other fundamental interactions01:20:24
of physics01:20:25
it proposes that Elementary particles01:20:29
are not structureless dots but rather01:20:32
one-dimensional entities called strings01:20:36
yes tiny strings plunge deep into matter01:20:40
at the theoretical limit of possibility01:20:45
just as absolute zero is the lowest01:20:47
temperature that can be there would also01:20:50
be a limit Beyond which it would be01:20:52
impossible to go any lower01:20:54
the plank length01:20:57
a distance about a billion billion times01:21:00
smaller than the proton radius01:21:03
that's about 10 to the minus 35 power01:21:06
meters01:21:08
and it's at this distance in the depths01:21:11
of the infinitely small that the famous01:21:13
strings at the heart of this Theory01:21:15
would be found01:21:17
according to this hypothesis strings are01:21:21
fundamental objects that vibrate at01:21:24
different frequencies and modes01:21:27
these modes of vibration determine the01:21:30
properties of the particles we observe01:21:32
such as their Mass charge and spin01:21:36
so instead of having a limited set of01:21:39
Elementary particles such as neutrinos01:21:42
electrons or quarks01:21:44
String Theory suggests that there is01:21:47
only one type of particle01:21:49
strings01:21:51
filaments vibrating on themselves and01:21:54
driving through their different modes of01:21:57
vibration the diversity of Elementary01:22:00
particles we know01:22:02
and even those we don't know about but01:22:05
assume to exist such as gravitons01:22:09
do you still follow01:22:11
right on01:22:12
String Theory also proposes that gravity01:22:16
is a natural consequence of string01:22:18
interactions01:22:20
to sum things up very simply considering01:22:24
Elementary particles as one-dimensional01:22:27
objects and not as dimensionless points01:22:30
makes it possible to arrive at a valid01:22:34
quantification of Relativity Theory01:22:38
String Theory thus solves the problem of01:22:42
the incompatibility between quantum01:22:44
mechanics and general relativity01:22:47
the two pillars of modern physics01:22:51
in fact this is the Crux of the01:22:54
palliative theories to the standard01:22:56
model01:22:57
they all attempt to quantify I.E to01:23:01
propose a workable alternative to the01:23:04
theory of relativity but on a Quantum01:23:07
scale01:23:08
more commonly known as the quantum01:23:12
gravity problem01:23:14
the task is a daunting one since the01:23:17
forces of gravity on the subatomic scale01:23:20
are so weak as to be almost non-existent01:23:24
in this respect String Theory offers a01:23:28
tantalizing Prospect for a Theory of01:23:30
Everything01:23:31
the famous El Dorado of physics capable01:23:35
of describing the entire universe from01:23:38
subatomic particles to Cosmic structures01:23:43
it even suggests the existence of an01:23:45
additional particle the Axion which01:23:49
would be an ideal candidate to explain01:23:51
the origin of dark matter01:23:54
however in attempting to solve some01:23:57
problems this Theory raises others01:24:01
yes an essential feature of this big01:24:04
idea is the need to add extra Dimensions01:24:07
to the four dimensions of space-time we01:24:09
know01:24:11
for in reality there are several unknown01:24:15
Dimensions that are coiled or compressed01:24:17
on a scale beyond the microscopic01:24:21
and the consensus is that 10 dimensions01:24:24
are needed for string theory to work01:24:27
that is one dimension of time and nine01:24:30
dimensions of space01:24:33
for the uninitiated this somewhat01:24:35
far-fetched hypothesis would explain why01:24:39
we don't perceive these extra Dimensions01:24:41
despite the refinement of our detection01:24:44
devices01:24:46
to overcome these various01:24:49
inconsistencies string theory has been01:24:52
expanded in a number of ways01:24:55
by giving strings a spin or by01:24:58
stipulating the existence of the01:25:00
Multiverse01:25:02
understand then that string theory is01:25:05
still a work in progress01:25:07
its proponents are still far from01:25:10
possessing its complete formula01:25:13
in fact it leaves many researchers01:25:15
baffled not least because of the many01:25:18
mathematical and conceptual challenges01:25:21
it raises01:25:23
to date no direct experiment has been01:25:27
able to confirm it01:25:28
and with good reason01:25:30
because of the six unknown and hidden01:25:33
Dimensions postulated by this Theory01:25:35
there are so many experimental01:25:38
predictions that they cannot be01:25:40
confirmed01:25:42
but all hope is not lost01:25:44
for there is one component of string01:25:47
theory that could well be verified in01:25:50
practice [Music]01:25:54
this promising component goes by the01:25:57
name of super symmetry01:26:00
a theoretical extension of particle01:26:02
physics that proposes symmetry between01:26:05
the components of matter the universal01:26:08
forces and the mediators that bind them01:26:11
together01:26:13
it aims to resolve certain limitations01:26:16
and unresolved questions in particle01:26:18
physics such as the nature of dark01:26:21
matter01:26:22
the persimmetry postulates the existence01:26:25
of partners for every particle known to01:26:29
the standard model01:26:31
at present there are 12 Elementary01:26:33
particles in the standard model01:26:36
but if we Count Their different versions01:26:39
as well as anti-particles we arrive at01:26:42
61.01:26:44
but supersymmetry tells us that there01:26:47
are twice as many particles01:26:49
122 in all01:26:52
these supersymmetric partners are called01:26:55
super partners01:26:58
for every particle of matter for every01:27:01
fermion in other words there is a super01:27:04
partner01:27:06
for example the electrons double is01:27:09
called a selectron01:27:12
and for every Force particle the bosons01:27:15
there is also a super partner in the01:27:19
case of the photon this would be the01:27:22
photino01:27:24
and each supersymmetric particle would01:27:27
belong to the opposite category to that01:27:29
of its double01:27:31
thus the selectron would be a boson and01:27:34
the fotino a fermion01:27:38
so there would be as many bosons as01:27:40
fermions and the standard model would be01:27:43
incomplete01:27:45
however none of these hypothetical twins01:27:48
has ever been observed01:27:51
but where the idea seems promising is01:27:54
that thanks to advances in technology we01:27:57
should soon have an answer01:27:59
indeed the creation of supersymmetric01:28:03
particles requires phenomenal01:28:05
theoretical energy01:28:08
and cern's particle gas pedal should01:28:11
soon be capable of producing sufficient01:28:13
energy to observe these potential01:28:16
duplicates01:28:18
if despite cern's progress no01:28:22
supersymmetric particle is detected in01:28:24
the next few years this will call the01:28:27
theory into serious question01:28:29
an as a logical consequence String01:28:32
Theory itself01:28:35
now it's time to conclude our journey01:28:37
and for that what better way than to01:28:41
introduce you to another theory01:28:43
once again this one aims to fill the01:28:47
gaps in the standard model by proposing01:28:49
a different approach to string theory01:28:52
its name Loop quantum gravity01:28:55
[Music]01:28:58
unlike String Theory which includes the01:29:01
existence of fundamental objects Loop01:29:04
quantum gravity focuses on the geometry01:29:06
of space-time itself01:29:09
in this Theory space-time is not seen as01:29:13
a smooth Continuum but rather as a01:29:16
discrete Network made up of Loops or01:29:19
links that connect its various points01:29:23
these Loops represent the fundamental01:29:26
Quantum interactions between regions of01:29:28
space-time and form a discrete structure01:29:32
or a discontinuous structure if you01:29:35
prefer01:29:37
to make this point she uses Concepts01:29:40
from graph Theory and Quantum01:29:42
mathematics to describe these loops and01:29:45
their evolution over time01:29:47
it also relies on quantifying the area01:29:50
and volume of regions of space-time01:29:53
it's as if space-time were made up of01:29:57
Elementary bricks01:30:00
in layman's terms atoms of space-time01:30:04
an important aspect of loop quantum01:30:07
gravity is the notion of lattice spin01:30:10
but what exactly does this mean01:30:13
well you have to understand that each01:30:16
Loop in the lattice carries a quantized01:30:19
quantity of angular momentum or spin01:30:23
and this quantity represents the quantum01:30:26
properties associated with the geometry01:30:28
of space-time01:30:31
this view of spin makes it possible to01:30:34
describe the gravitational properties of01:30:36
space-time on a microscopic scale01:30:40
indeed Loop quantum gravity proposes01:30:43
that gravitational interactions between01:30:46
particles are due to the exchange of01:30:49
discrete quantities of angular momentum01:30:52
between each Loop01:30:55
in short this hypothesis solves the01:30:58
problem of quantum gravity01:30:59
[Music]01:31:01
however like the previous Theory Loop01:31:04
quantum gravity is still under study01:31:07
the problem Remains the Same01:31:10
it is very difficult to test01:31:12
experimentally as it predicts01:31:14
significant effects but on extremely01:31:17
small scales that are not directly01:31:19
accessible by our measuring equipment01:31:24
again all this takes place at plank01:31:27
length which is 10 to the minus 35 power01:31:30
meters remember01:31:33
there are many other theories whose aim01:31:36
is to meet the greatest challenge of01:31:38
modern physics the unification of the01:31:41
four Great Universal forces at all01:31:44
scales of size The Theory of Everything01:31:49
but will it ever be possible to unify01:31:52
the infinitely large and the infinitely01:31:55
small01:31:57
is man not condemned by his condition to01:32:01
remain ignorant of the profound nature01:32:03
of the matter that makes him up and of01:32:05
the universe he inhabits01:32:07
perhaps so01:32:09
but should we give up in the face of01:32:11
such a daunting task01:32:13
certainly not01:32:15
today thousands of researchers01:32:18
physicists and scientists are working01:32:21
hard to find answers to the questions01:32:24
that torment them01:32:26
comforted by discoveries that multiply01:32:29
over time we feel deep down that the01:32:32
answers are close at hand01:32:35
but each Discovery also brings its own01:32:38
set of questions01:32:40
after all isn't this the greatest secret01:32:43
of the universe01:32:45
isn't it its capacity to offer us ever01:32:48
more challenging enigmas to solve never01:32:51
revealing all the keys to understanding01:32:53
it01:32:55
a source that will sustain our wonder01:32:57
and curiosity for as long as we live01:33:03
[Music]01:33:09
foreign01:33:10
[Music]Description:
🌍 Have you ever wondered what the foundations of our reality are based on? What if I told you that the world around us is governed by mysterious particles and invisible dimensions? Would you believe me? Nothing could be further from the truth... Yet the nature of the forces and elements that shape our universe is unknown to us. Admittedly, scientific advances over the last few centuries have enabled us to understand in detail the events that unfold on a macroscopic scale. But when we venture onto smaller scales, it's as if we're entering a parallel reality whose workings escape us. In this world of the infinitely small, the laws of physics and relativity we know no longer apply. Instead, we find strange, sometimes invisible particles interacting in ways so mysterious that we find it hard to believe how they work. Quantum physics, string theory, supersymmetry, the uncertainty principle... So much vocabulary that attempts to describe the mechanisms of this invisible reality to make it easier to understand. 🔥 As a reminder, videos are published on SUNDAYS at 6pm. ------------------------- 💥Voyage vers l'Infiniment Petit: - Each discovery inevitably raises its own set of questions... In their quest to probe the microscopic world, scientists have nonetheless been able to venture deep into nature's smallest secrets. While a few decades ago we thought that atoms were the inseparable building blocks of matter, today we know that these elements are home to an incredible bestiary of particles. Quarks, gluons, Higgs bosons, neutrinos, photons... It's enough to make you dizzy! To say that these elements are minuscule is an understatement. To understand this, let's compare scales. Observations of the cosmos tell us that the diameter of the observable universe is around 93 billion light-years. This universe would include between 100 and 200 billion galaxies. In fact, our Milky Way is but a tiny drop of water in a cosmic ocean. Yet, from our perspective, its dimensions are inordinate: almost 53,000 light-years. That's enough to house between 200 and 400 billion stars, and probably more than 100 billion planets... Among these stars is our sun: nearly 700,000 km in radius. That's around 109 times the diameter of the Earth. Our beautiful blue planet, gigantic to our eyes, is in reality invisible to those of the cosmos. For if the solar system were a city twenty kilometers across, the Earth would be little more than a grape. And yet, nearly 8 billion human beings live on it. But then again, appearances are deceptive, as man is far from occupying all the space available on Earth. If we were to group together all the human beings currently living, they would fit on an area equivalent to the city of Los Angeles... So, compared to a modestly-sized terrestrial planet, man is a grain of sand. If this scale comparison gives you a slight headache, just wait for the next part. Because it's possible to go much further. Each human being, however microscopic compared to the cosmos, is made up of around 30,000 billion cells. And these tiny cells, observable only under the microscope, are themselves made up of 100,000 billion atoms! This figure varies greatly from cell to cell, but it's still completely excessive. Wait, we can go even further... If you look at the core of atoms, you'll be amazed to discover that they're 99.9%... empty! In other words, matter is theoretically made up of nothingness! It may sound crazy, but hidden in this nothingness are tiny elements of the quantum world that give life to the reality we know. And although we are made of atoms, their profound nature seems even more distant than the confines of the observable universe. So, the infinitely small conceals many mysteries. So get ready to travel to the heart of matter! Together, we'll try to unlock its secrets by literally looking deep inside ourselves... ------------------------- 🎬 Today's program: 00:00 - Introduction 06:11 - The macroscopic world 21:27 - Diving into the heart of atoms 35:44 - Subatomic particles 39:45 - Quarks 48:46 - Leptons 50:55 - Bosons 55:25 - The Standard Model 1:03:51 - Higgs boson 1:08:45 - The mysteries of quantum physics 1:18:20 - String theory 1:23:38 - Supersymmetry 1:26:26 - Quantum loop theory Wondody is an official channel affiliated to the network ©Production Orbinea
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